Vaccines Notes

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Practical Applications of Immunology

Learning Objective

Check Your Understanding

18-1    Define vaccine.

What is the etymology (origin) of the word
vaccine ?

18-2    Explain why vaccination works.

Vaccination is often the only feasible way to
control most viral diseases. Why is this?

18-3    Differentiate the following, and provide an example of each:
attenuated, inactivated, toxoid,
subunit, and conjugated vaccines.

Experience has shown that attenuated vaccines tend to be more effective than inactivated vaccines. Why?

18-4    Contrast subunit vaccines and
nucleic acid vaccines.

Which is more likely to be useful in preventing a disease caused by an encapsulated bacterium such as the pneumococcus: a subunit vaccine or a
nucleic acid vaccine?

18-5    Compare and contrast the
production of attenuated and killed vaccines, recombinant vaccines, and DNA vaccines.

Which type of vaccine is a live measles virus: inactivated, attenuated, recombinant, or DNA? ( Hint : See Chapter 22.)

18-6    Define adjuvant.

What is the value of an adjuvant ?

18-7    Explain the value of vaccines, and discuss acceptable risks for
vaccines.

Why could the oral (Sabin) polio vaccine sometimes cause polio, but the injected (Salk) vaccine does not?

18-8    Differentiate sensitivity from
specificity in a diagnostic test.

What property of the immune system suggested its use as an aid for diagnosing disease: specificity or sensitivity?

18-9    Define monoclonal antibodies , and identify their advantage over
conventional antibody production.

The blood of an infected cow would have a
considerable amount of antibodies against the
infectious pathogen in its blood. How would an equivalent amount of monoclonal antibodies be more useful?

18-10  Explain how precipitation reactions and immunodiffusion tests work.

Why does the reaction of a precipitation test
become visible only in a narrow range?

18-11  Differentiate direct from indirect agglutination tests.

Why wouldn’t a direct agglutination test work
very well with viruses?

18-12  Differentiate agglutination from precipitation tests.

Which test detects soluble antigens: agglutination or precipitation?

18-13  Define hemagglutination.

Certain diagnostic tests require red blood cells that clump visibly. What are these tests called?

18-14  Explain how a neutralization test works.

In what way is there a connection between
hemagglutination and certain viruses?

18-15  Differentiate precipitation from neutralization tests.

Which of these tests is an antigen–antibody
reaction: precipitation or viral hemagglutination inhibition?

18-16  Explain the basis for the
complement-fixation test.

Why is complement given its name?

18-17  Compare and contrast direct and indirect fluorescent-antibody tests.

Which test is used to detect antibodies against
a pathogen: the direct or the indirect
fluorescent-antibody test?

18-18  Explain how direct and indirect ELISA tests work.

Which test is used to detect antibodies against a pathogen: the direct or the indirect ELISA test?

18-19  Explain how Western blotting works.

How are antibodies detected in Western blotting?

18-20  Explain the importance of
monoclonal antibodies.

How has the development of monoclonal
antibodies revolutionized diagnostic immunology?

 

Chapter Summary

Vaccines (pp. 493–500)

  1. Edward Jenner developed the modern practice of vaccination when he inoculated people with cowpox virus to protect them against smallpox.

Principles and Effects of Vaccination (pp. 493–495)

  1. Herd immunity results when most of a population is immune to a disease.

Herd Immunity Links to an external site.

Types of Vaccines and Their Characteristics (pp. 495–497)

ASM 2.2: Bacteria have unique cell structures that can be targets for antibiotics, immunity, and phage infection.

ASM 5.4: Microorganisms, cellular and viral, can interact with both human and non-human hosts in beneficial, neutral, or detrimental ways.

ASM 6.3: Humans utilize and harness microorganisms and their products.

  1. Attenuated vaccines consist of attenuated (weakened) microorganisms; attenuated virus vaccines generally provide lifelong immunity.
  2. Inactivated vaccines consist of killed bacteria or viruses.
  3. Subunit vaccines consist of antigenic fragments of a microorganism; these include recombinant vaccines and toxoids.
  4. Conjugated vaccines combine the desired antigen with a protein that boosts the immune response.
  5. Nucleic acid (DNA) vaccines cause the recipient to make the antigenic protein.

Immunization Schedule Links to an external site. 

How Vaccines are Made Links to an external site. 

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Types of Vaccines Links to an external site. 

How Vaccines Work Links to an external site. 

How are Vaccines Made? Links to an external site.

Scientific Method Links to an external site. 

Koch's Postulates Links to an external site. 

Download CDC ID-Framework.pdf

Download CDCVaccineSchedule.0-18yrs-child-combined-schedule.pdf

   

Vaccines By Age Links to an external site. 

The Development of New Vaccines (pp. 497–498)

  1. Viruses for vaccines may be grown in animals, cell cultures, or chick embryos.
  2. Recombinant vaccines and nucleic acid vaccines do not need to be grown in cells or animals.
  3. Genetically modified plants may someday provide edible vaccines.

Pioneer Breakthroughs Links to an external site. 

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Vaccine Technologies (p. 498)

  1. Combining several vaccines would eliminate the number of injections.
  2. Dry skin patch vaccines don’t need refrigeration.

Adjuvants (pp. 499–500)

  1. Adjuvants improve the effectiveness of some antigens.

Safety of Vaccines (p. 500)

  1. Vaccines are the safest and most effective means of controlling infectious diseases.

Understanding Risks Links to an external site. 

Should I Travel There? Links to an external site.

*ALL FURTHER INFORMATION WAS ALREADY COVERED IN THE BIOTECHNOLOGY UNIT*

Diagnostic Immunology (pp. 500–501)

Immunologic-Based Diagnostic Tests (p. 500–501)

  1. Many tests based on the interactions of antibodies and antigens have been developed to determine the presence of antibodies or antigens in a patient.
  2. The sensitivity of a diagnostic test is determined by the percentage of positive samples it correctly detects; and its specificity is determined by the percentage of false positive results it gives.

Monoclonal Antibodies (pp. 501–503)

  1. Hybridomas are produced in the laboratory by fusing a cancerous cell with an antibody-secreting plasma cell.
  2. A hybridoma cell culture produces large quantities of the plasma cell’s antibodies, called monoclonal antibodies.
  3. Monoclonal antibodies are used in serological identification tests, to prevent tissue rejections, and to make immunotoxins to treat cancer.

Precipitation Reactions (pp. 503–504)

  1. The interaction of soluble antigens with IgG or IgM antibodies leads to precipitation reactions.
  2. Precipitation reactions depend on the formation of lattices and occur best when antigen and antibody are present in optimal proportions. Excesses of either component decrease lattice formation and subsequent precipitation.
  3. Immunodiffusion procedures are precipitation reactions carried out in an agar gel medium.
  4. Immunoelectrophoresis combines electrophoresis with immunodiffusion for the analysis of serum proteins.

Agglutination Reactions (pp. 504–505)

  1. The interaction of particulate antigens (cells that carry antigens) with antibodies leads to agglutination reactions.
  2. Diseases may be diagnosed by combining the patient’s serum with a known antigen.
  3. Diseases can be diagnosed by a rising titer or seroconversion (from no antibodies to the presence of antibodies).
  4. Direct agglutination reactions can be used to determine antibody titer.
  5. Antibodies cause visible agglutination of soluble antigens affixed to latex spheres in indirect or passive agglutination tests.
  6. Hemagglutination reactions involve agglutination reactions using red blood cells.
    Hemagglutination reactions are used in blood typing, the diagnosis of certain diseases, and the identification of viruses.

Neutralization Reactions (pp. 505–506)

  1. In neutralization reactions, the harmful effects of a bacterial exotoxin or virus are
    eliminated by a specific antibody.
  2. An antitoxin is an antibody produced in response to a bacterial exotoxin or a toxoid that neutralizes the exotoxin.
  3. In a virus neutralization test, the presence of antibodies against a virus can be detected by the antibodies’ ability to prevent cytopathic effects of viruses in cell cultures.
  4. Antibodies against certain viruses can be detected by their ability to interfere with viral hemagglutination in viral hemagglutination inhibition tests.

Complement-Fixation Reactions (pp. 506–507)

  1. Complement-fixation reactions are serological tests based on the depletion of a fixed amount of complement in the presence of an antigen–antibody reaction.

Fluorescent-Antibody Techniques (pp. 507–509)

  1. Fluorescent-antibody techniques use antibodies labeled with fluorescent dyes.
  2. Direct fluorescent-antibody tests are used to identify specific microorganisms.
  3. Indirect fluorescent-antibody tests are used to demonstrate the presence of antibody in serum.
  4. A fluorescence-activated cell sorter can be used to detect and count cells labeled with fluorescent antibodies.

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) (pp. 509–510)

  1. ELISA techniques use antibodies linked to an enzyme.
  2. Antigen–antibody reactions are detected by enzyme activity. If the indicator enzyme is present in the test well, an antigen–antibody reaction has occurred.
  3. The direct ELISA is used to detect antigens against a specific antibody bound in a test well.
  4. The indirect ELISA is used to detect antibodies against an antigen bound in a test well.

Western Blotting (Immunoblotting) (p. 511)

  1. Serum antibodies separated by electrophoresis are identified with an enzyme-linked antibody.

The Future of Diagnostic and Therapeutic Immunology (p. 511)

  1. The use of monoclonal antibodies will continue to make new diagnostic tests possible.